Publications by the Civic Education Project 

Donna Culpepper, President
Civic Education Project 

The roundtable "Brain Gain: Sustaining Young Social Scientists in Post-Communist Countries" was held in Budapest on 10 and 11 December 1999. The idea for this event evolved through discussions between the Civic Education Project (CEP) and the German Rectors Conference (HRK) concerning the future of social science education in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and the Newly Independent States (NIS). Both organizations have extensive contacts with young social scientists in this region, and we have seen that they are encountering numerous difficulties as they try to establish themselves in academia. While some of the problems they face are unique to their own circumstances, there is a pattern of issues and obstacles presented by the current situation in higher education in the region.

A large group of CEP Eastern Scholars and other guests gathered in Lviv, Ukraine in May 1999 to discuss these issues and share their impressions of programs intended to address them. The exchange of information proved useful for everyone. Nevertheless, the group concluded that the situation needed broader exposure and further discussion. With this in mind, we brought together individuals who have experience and interest in this region and a number of young scholars who have a direct stake in the policies and programs that will shape the development of higher education in the social sciences.

We hope the recommendations summarized here will help direct the programs, policies and resources intended to support higher education in postcommunist Europe and Eurasia. This is a critical juncture for these young scholars. Without improving the situation, they could well give up their careers in academia. The loss of this generation of scholars would have far-reaching consequences not only for the quality of social science education and research but also for reform efforts in these countries. We hope that the results of our efforts will be of interest and assistance to individuals, organizations and institutions that wish to initiate reform at their own universities, in their countries and in the region. Additionally, this publication should be helpful to international organizations and western institu-tions of higher education in directing their efforts effectively to support reform efforts. Finally, we hope that the notes made here will be referred to by government representatives in ministries of education throughout CEE and the NIS when creating national policies that will address the need for "brain gain" in these countries.

The roundtable proceedings are presented here as follows. A master list of recommendations identified by the participants is summarized at the front of this volume. More extensive description, elaboration on potential solutions, and examples of programs currently in progress that are intended to serve as prototypes for further initiatives are presented in the workgroup summaries. It should be mentioned that the discussion proceedings have been reorganized to assist the reader. We also have included the insightful comments of our keynote speaker, Dr. Adrian Miroiu. Finally, the organizations currently operating in higher education reform that are noted throughout the proceedings are listed at the back of the publication.

Venue
Gellért Hotel, Budapest, Hungary

11.30–13.30 Plenary session

Keynote Address
Speaker: Adrian Miroiu, State Secretary
Ministry of National Education, Romania

Reports and Discussions
Chair: Donna Culpepper, President
Civic Education Project

Petr Jehlicka, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Progress in Sustaining Young Social Scientists in the NIS

Nikolai Petroukovich, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Institute of Contemporary Knowledge, Minsk, Belarus

Alexandra Horobet, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

15.00–18.00 Simultaneous Workgroups

I. Improving Conditions for Attracting and Retaining
Talented Individuals for University Positions

Chair: Anatoliy Mikhailov, Rector
European Humanities University, Minsk, Belarus
Rapporteur: Ivelin Sardamov, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
American University in Bulgaria

II. Professional Development and Advancement of Young Faculty

Chair: Sophia Howlett, Dean
Special and Extension Programs,
Central European University, Budapest, Hungary
Rapporteur: Corneliu Berari, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
University of the West, Timisoara, Romania

III. Building and Rebuilding Linkages and Networks, East and West

Chair: Marjorie Peace Lenn, Executive Director
Global Alliance for Transnational Education
Rapporteur: Keti Vashakidze, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Georgia 

11.00–12.45 Simultaneous Sessions

I. Assistance Programs in the Region

Chair: John Slocum, Program Officer
MacArthur Foundation
Rapporteur: Emily Lehrman, External Relations Officer
Civic Education Project

II. Structural Improvements in Higher Education

Chair: Dr. Adrian Miroiu, State Secretary
Ministry of National Education, Romania
Rapporteur: Sergei Makarevich, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Belarusian State University, Minsk, Belarus

13.15–14.00 Plenary Session

Discussion and Conclusions
Chair: Donna Culpepper, President
Civic Education Project

15.30–17.00 Workgroups by Field of Study

Chair: Lucia Padure, CEP Local Faculty Fellow

International Institute of Management
Chisinau, Moldova

Chair: Elena Kovaleva, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Donetsk State Technical University, Ukraine

Chair: Oleg Sidorov, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Mari State University, Yoshkar-Ola, Russia

Chair: Sergei Dobrinin, CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Buryat State University, Ulan-Ude, Russia 

The roundtable "Brain Gain: Sustaining Young Social Scientists in Post-Communist Countries" brought together professionals who have experience and interest in higher education in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and the Newly Independent States (NIS) and a number of young scholars who have a direct stake in this field. The challenges that face young academics and that force many to leave education and/or their home countries—from institutional rigidity and financial crisis, to access to professional development opportunities, to a lack of academic networks in this region—were discussed and potential solutions to these problems proposed. The recommendations summarized here are meant to direct programs and resources intended to support higher education in postcommunist Europe and Eurasia and are addressed to: individuals, organizations and institutions that wish to initiate reform at their own universities, in their countries and in the region; international organizations and western institutions of higher education in directing their efforts to support reform effectively; and government representatives in ministries of education throughout CEE and the NIS who are involved in creating national policies that will address the need for "brain gain" in these countries. More detailed discussion of these issues and solutions appears in the workgroup summaries that follow. 

• Increasing access to information and improving teaching resources

— improve access to the Internet (assist with acquisition of computers, development of technical infrastructure, establishment of designated public computing centers, etc.)

— develop and improve access to academic resources available on Internet databases

— create distribution networks for academic work in the region

— sponsor and organize curriculum workshops

— launch new academic journals

— support and improve university libraries

— share resources with and secure donations from western institutions

• Improving working conditions to foster scholarship

— establish salary supplement programs for excellence in teaching

— encourage decreased workloads for lecturers

— sponsor and organize training programs in new teaching methods

— introduce paid tutorial programs to supplement instructor salaries

— improve access to information on grants and fellowships

— establish exchanges and collegial links with western universities

• Increasing and more effectively using financial resources

— adopt new budgetary distribution principles to encourage quality and innovation

— identify alternative sources of income

— reform institutional mechanisms to oversee finances efficiently

— introduce formal financial evaluation processes

— publicize budgetary information in the public domain to encourage transparency

• Improving decision making

— involve stakeholders in decision making

— establish a sense of ownership within the university community

— launch periodicals for officials at higher administrative levels

— create workshops and structures for the exchange of opinion that include academics

— utilize university alumni as success indicators and survey student needs and opinions

— improve access to administrative positions for young academics

— establish grant or award programs for outstanding administrators

— establish university management training programs

— promote dialogue on educational management at the departmental level

• Seeking donors, managing aid and identifying areas of need

• Improving academic discourse

— organize regional academic conferences and workshops

— increase the number of summer schools and academic seminars

— establish regional professional organizations

— improve accessibility to membership in western professional associations

— support mobility among universities in CEE and the NIS

• Increasing research and publishing opportunities

— launch new scholarly periodicals

— expand academic translation projects

— increase number of research methodology seminars

— coordinate institutional exchange of monographs and other academic work

— coordinate links between academies and universities

— establish special grants for university-sponsored research projects

— earmark institutional resources for young scholars

— foster awareness of external funding opportunities for individual research projects

— establish regional teaching/research resource centers

• Improving teaching methods

— establish regional curriculum development centers

— sponsor and organize teaching methodology workshops

— publish methodology textbooks

• Increasing competition and improving quality teaching

— institute matching programs for funds raised by scholars

— establish institutional recognition of scholarly excellence

— reform system of performance evaluation to recognize innovation

— introduce new methods of quality assessment

— ensure transparency in hiring procedures

— relax centralized control in higher education

— support innovative institutions and departments

— introduce external (nonnational) evaluation of internal structures

• Supporting advanced training of young scholars

— develop a cadre of senior academics

— encourage cooperative relationships between scholars of universities and of research/policy institutes

— coordinate visiting instructor programs

— establish internationally recognized dissertation committees

— improve access to correspondence programs

— support institutions that promote norms of academic excellence

— launch independent, professional, refereed academic and civic journals

— introduce external assessment of student work

— introduce credit systems

• Promoting quality control

2. Establishing Common Standards

Dr. Adrian Miroiu, State Secretary
Ministry of National Education of Romania 

Dr. Miroiu shared his experiences both as a former member of a university’s academic staff and as a national administrator in the Romanian Ministry of Education. In laying the background for his address he noted that there are many issues raised in the ministry and policies created with the intention to change radically the system of higher education. Many governments now have regulations on university funding; global financing and financing according to formulae based on student numbers are common in Central and Eastern Europe. However, funds are not always used efficiently, and thus the system wastes resources. Salaries of university staff are low, especially those of young staff. Inadequate resources for teaching are detrimental, particularly for those who have just returned from abroad to find a lack of basic texts, equipment and networks of communication.

Universities have changed since the fall of communism, but the key question is, have they changed enough to attract young scholars? Connected with this are other questions: Have curricula changed, and to what extent? How flexible are they and what are their constraints? Are there opportunities to open new programs to attract young scholars? One also can analyze the university’s internal structure, the extent of its rigidity, the diversity of its departments and programs. Dr. Miroiu observed that the older the program, the more it seems to oppose change. Under such circumstances one can only expect incremental change.

Fortunately, the case is different in some universities. In Romania, sociology and political science were not studied before 1989; such departments were built from nothing. The teaching staff in these disciplines are largely "converts" from philosophy and law faculties. Thus, many philosophy, sociology and political science departments have an overwhelming majority of staff members under thirty-five years of age. These young people have decision-making power and oversee and develop new programs. Dr. Miroiu noted that he himself was just thirty-five years of age when he was appointed dean of philosophy. Many of his colleagues were of the same age, and together they were able to change radically such departments within a few years. This did not happen, he acknowledged, in all faculties, and in fact the diversity among departments in this respect is high in Romania.

Dr. Miroiu presented some conceptual points for participants to consider during the conference: What is presupposed about the needs of young social scientists? Should policies address the situation of these young scholars one by one or that of the institutions with which they are affiliated? By helping universities and faculties, it is possible that one in turn supports young social scientists. Another important aspect for consideration is the definition of "brain gain" versus "brain drain." People usually define "brain drain" as talented people from an East European country leaving to study in the West and then remaining there. In reality, the situation is more complicated, as young scholars are moving from their home country to other countries in the region; for example, there is brain drain from Romania to Hungary and from Moldova to Romania.

In designing new solutions and new policies to retain young social scientists, Dr. Miroiu suggested several other poignant questions: What do students gain if young social scientists return to their faculties? What do faculties gain in regard to teaching materials, methods and curricula? What do universities gain? Can they have greater social impact through the work of these young scholars? Do they acquire a better understanding of the international arena and new subjects, research, teaching methods, etc.? What does society gain? Does it attain a more efficient use of scarce financial resources? Does it obtain a better understanding of itself as these young social scientists examine specific societal problems in a new light? With regard to reforming institutions, Miroiu advocated examining both the descriptive and normative situation, posing the questions: What does happen, and what should happen?

Chair: Anatoliy Mikhailov, Rector
European Humanities University, Minsk, Belarus
Rapporteur: Ivelin Sardamov, Civic Education Project Eastern Scholar
American University in Bulgaria, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria 

Current financial conditions of universities are forcing many of the best young scholars to leave academia. "Brain drain," both internal and external, is eroding the pool of human resources upon which universities depend. Instructors’ salaries in virtually all post-communist states are very low and are not competitive with other sectors of the economy. Many academics opt for higher paying positions in business or seek positions at universities abroad. Those who choose to remain in academia must take additional jobs in order to make financial ends meet. Consequently university lecturers have little time to develop new courses, conduct research, publish, advise students, interact with colleagues or engage in other activities that enhance higher education and the intellectual community.

Additionally, many universities lack the resources and materials necessary for effective teaching and research. Libraries are chronically underfunded, and there are inadequate resources to replicate and distribute teaching materials. Consequently many instructors find it difficult to assign outside reading or research projects to their students, much less to conduct research themselves. In some universities even the most basic classroom requirements—blackboards, heating, electricity—are unavailable. Without adequate materials and equipment, even the most determined scholars struggle to find satisfaction in their professional lives.

The legacy of the old system is present to varying degrees in universities across the region. Administrators, deans and professors who are reluctant to embrace change dominate many institutions. University administration is highly centralized, favoring career academics and closed decision-making processes. Financing is not based on quality or innovation; thus, there is little incentive for change. The state remains the main source of funding, and universities are unable to identify and acquire additional financing that is necessary to increase salaries and provide necessary teaching and research resources. Such inflexibility makes the university an unwelcoming environment for ambitious young scholars.

These problems are particularly acute in the social sciences, where the need for reform in higher education is greatest and resources are particularly scarce. The situation makes it difficult to keep promising young scholars in academia. 

Participants agreed to narrow the definition of "financial problems" to those that directly prevent young social scientists from focusing their efforts on teaching and research. Therefore, the most important financial issues were identified as: (1) low salaries, which force young academics to accept huge teaching loads and additional nonacademic jobs, and (2) the inability of universities to provide faculty members with the minimal materials, facilities, resources and information necessary for professional development.

1. Incentives to Attract Promising Students to Academic Careers

Another method of ensuring "brain gain" is to identify excellent students in their last year of study and assist them in obtaining admission to and providing funding for postgraduate programs in the West, with the provision that they return to their home countries and teach for three to five years in their undergraduate departments.

2. Areas of Potential Assistance to Young Scholars 

A more long-term project is support for and improvement of university libraries in the region, especially in provincial cities. Apart from programs already in progress by CEP, the Higher Education Support Program (HESP) and the Network Library Program (NLP) of the Open Society Institute, additional library resources can be donated by other institutions. CEP Fellows have secured several donations to their host universities. 

Other possibilities include resource sharing with and donations from western institutions that support culture and education, such as CEU. Cooperation with other networks that distribute materials and have resource centers, like the British Council, German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Goethe Institut and the Sabre Foundation, can increase the effective expansion of collections. A combined effort by donors would broaden the impact of such programs. 

Young academics face a number of very practical obstacles in their daily work at universities; they lack time and support for both teaching and research. One direct method of allowing teachers to concentrate on their academic work rather than pursuing additional employment is to provide salary supplements for excellence in teaching, such as the Széchenyi Fellowships offered by the Hungarian government. Furthermore, efforts to decrease the workload of lecturers at the institutional level are necessary. This is not so much a financial question as one of changing the traditions of teaching in the region, where instruction is often based on information transfer through rote memorization and lecture-style delivery, rather than encouraging intellectual exchange and the application of knowledge through more interactive means. Thus, such an initiative would entail restructuring the course scheduling of university departments to reduce the number of lecture hours, which currently are detrimentally high for both professors and students, and simultaneously reforming the content and method of both instruction and learning. Such an initiative would necessitate the introduction of training in new teaching methods.

Another way to alleviate the financial constraints young academics face might be the introduction of paid tutorials. Better access to information on grants and fellowships can provide alternative opportunities for financing research and short-term leaves from local positions. It also would be useful to develop more exchanges and collegial links with western universities, which would increase opportunities for young academics to pursue research evaluated by scholars on the basis of international standards.

3. Institutional Reform of Universities

The university environment should support development and change. Decentraliza-tion is desirable for efficiency, but it has to occur within a framework that takes the strategic plan of the university as a whole into consideration. For instance, new budgetary distribution principles have been adopted by some universities in the region, allocating funding from "revenue raisers" (departments like law and economics, which not only attract tuition-paying students but also can rely upon the provision of revenue-generating services such as consulting) to "cost centers" (like social sciences departments, which do not have great earning power). This practice is used, for example, by Mari State University in Russia. Another opinion is the introduction of differential funding, whereby resources are allocated to academic programs proportionate to their student numbers. Such a system has two strategic components: a formula may be created to favor enrollment in some programs over others, and larger portions of the budget may be designated to supplement funding for research in specific fields.

Financing education through tuition remains a controversial issue; many participants stressed that the state should remain the main source of funding
for higher education and research because the field of scholarship is considered to be a public good. It will be necessary, though, to provide incentives for quality teaching and research, to adopt evaluation criteria and to encourage decentraliza-tion and devolution of authority and responsibility, particularly in respect to financial issues, within consistent policy frameworks. In Western Europe, where discussion is being pursued concerning the reduction of state financing for universities, some alternatives have been developed. In Germany, a new formula for financing has been adopted by which budget allocations are made on the basis of the number of Ph.D. students who graduate (previously, large numbers
of Ph.D. students were enrolled at universities but never received their diplomas. This is currently the case in the Czech Republic as well). In Ireland, a university’s budget is based on the number of both Ph.D. and undergraduate students
enrolled.

In order to upgrade the resource base of departments, alternative sources of income must be sought. Publishing and investment were identified as two potential areas of revenue. In this manner, salaries can be increased without compromising academic standards, which are necessary to keep an institution attractive in the long run.

It is important to create institutional mechanisms to oversee finances. A formal evaluation process must be implemented, based on a range of transparent criteria and according to benchmarks. Such evaluations will help institutions learn not only how resources are being spent but also what the real needs of students are. In Romania, university funding is based on an institutional contract with the ministry. Universities must describe the programs they will sponsor when applying for funding, and subsequent annual requests must include reports on its use. The ministry then evaluates how the university managed its funding and organized its programs; those institutions that are in need of restructuring or modernization receive grants only if they demonstrate progress towards such change. Furthermore, university finances must be transparent in order to create incentive to improve efficiency; budgetary information must reach the public domain. In Romania, for example, universities must publish the main economic and academic indicators of their performance. Otherwise, a "secret dialogue" can develop in which universities are directed covertly by ministries of education. 

Another way that institutions can retain young scholars is through the involvement of stakeholders in decision making. Workshop participants noted that individuals at various levels should contribute to reform initiatives at universities, within and outside of the institutions themselves. Such involvement will reestablish a sense of ownership of universities, not necessarily practically, but psychologically. Talent and ability exists on every level, but incentives for involvement are often lacking. Suggestions include launching periodicals for officials at higher administrative levels, in which "success stories," case studies and opportunities for networking can be publicized. Furthermore, workshops and structures for the exchange of opinion that include academics can facilitate dialogue to improve conditions at universities and promote a greater sense of involvement in the workplace. Decentralization of discourse to the departmental level is necessary, but additionally, interdepartmental exchange can increase academics’ sense of their environment and result in the identification of common problems and possible solutions.

Students, as the "customers" of universities, should have a stake in the evolution of their universities. Student organizations in Tomsk, for example, have influenced university issues. Alumni also prove to be valuable resources as success indicators; universities can create boards of alumni to generate advice on and, in the long run, donations for the future development of their institutions.

An additional step to increasing involvement in university decision making is to provide better access to administrative positions—currently reserved for long-term career professionals—for young academics. Since their most immediate concerns are completion of their Ph.D.s and publication of their research, the input of young scholars concerning professional development is invaluable. Furthermore, encouraging participation in the administration and thus the ability to influence their environment provides long-term incentive for these scholars to remain at these institutions.

Though education seems to be an insecure investment during this unstable period in the region, it is simultaneously recognized as the basis for improvement of the political, economic and social situation as a whole. Numerous international aid organizations are functioning in the region; those singled out by participants as being particularly effective included the World Bank, Ford Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, Open Society Institute, Eurasia Foundation, Robert Bosch Founda-tion, MacArthur Foundation and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD).

Government-directed incentives to universities would assist the appropriate allocation and use of funding. For example, Romania received a World Bank loan for higher education reform, one component of which is to support university research. The Romanian government selected the projects that would benefit, using as the main criterion the participation of young social scientists.

Since funding often is not used in the way donors envision, direct technical and material support to universities can be focused on institutions where other programs are in operation to ensure that equipment will be properly used, maintained and made accessible. Furthermore, better exchange of information on what is being done and can be done in the future will help avoid duplication of effort and resource expenditure. A nongovernmental organization can provide evaluation of the use of financial assistance by and the effectiveness of existing projects. Furthermore, funding agencies could form a donor’s forum or an affinity group, possibly through the Internet.

Chair: Sophia Howlett, Dean
Special and Extension Programs, Central European University,
Budapest, Hungary
Rapporteur: Corneliu Berari, Civic Education Project Eastern Scholar
University of the West, Timisoara, Romania 

The current situation in universities across Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and the Newly Independent States (NIS) poses a number of obstacles for young scholars in their efforts to develop as professional academics. Low salaries dictate the necessity to pursue additional employment and accept huge teaching loads, making it difficult to invest time and effort in research and publishing. The lack of resources and library facilities makes even basic research a challenge. Publication in western or international journals is increasingly important, but local conditions and a lack of familiarity or experience with the international publishing process are prohibitive. In some places, the number of outlets for local publishing has diminished considerably. Additionally, many scholars have insufficient time and their universities insufficient resources to devote to curriculum and teaching development.

Universities and university systems also suffer from a lack of professional interaction and intellectual stimulation. It is widely reported that inter- and intra-university intellectual and professional networks have ceased to function. These networks are important to professional growth for a variety of reasons, including mentoring relationships, collaborative research, curriculum development and general scholarly debate and discussion. Opportunities to attend seminars and conferences both locally and internationally are relatively scarce. Consequently, academics are increasingly forced to work in relative isolation. This situation is particularly detrimental to the development of younger academics.

Young scholars, particularly those who have studied abroad, often find it difficult to advance their careers at their home universities. In many countries, degrees earned abroad either are not recognized or are discounted by the local university system. Obtaining a second doctoral degree or "habilitation" is often problematic due to the scarcity of professors available to supervise candidates. In some cases older professors who are unreceptive to the new approaches and ideas of scholars who have international training dominate the councils responsible for approving such degrees. Some young academics experience resentment from their colleagues, both young and old, because they have received grants or other support and have foreign contacts.

The professional development of young scholars is critical to the future of higher education. It will determine not only what type of individuals will comprise university faculties, but also the effectiveness of their work. Many university environments are currently unable to nurture the growth of young scholars in a manner that allows them to realize their potential. 

This working group discussed the main obstacles confronted by young social scientists in their efforts to develop as professional academics and how to promote conditions that will help them improve as scholars and educators and advance based upon the merit of their work.

Participants proposed solutions for tackling the lack of information and resources necessary for quality instruction and professional development. Proposals for projects or programs that would help young scholars overcome their academic isolation should be initiated both within the region and with western cooperation. 

Insufficient access to academic networks was identified as a great detriment to the teaching profession. Improvement in this area is important for young scholars whose professional development is hindered by a lack of financing for and access to such opportunities and is particularly critical in provincial areas.

Existing financial and institutional constraints on academic staff can be alleviated by supporting mobility among universities in CEE and the NIS. Hosting lecturers and the joint-appointment of professors among regional universities would increase scholarly contacts. 

Scholars are frequently unaware of research being pursued and resources available in their own countries or must travel great distances to use the materials of other libraries and archives. In order to increase access to such resources and thus promote academic discourse, programs facilitating the institutional exchange of monographs and other academic work by regional scholars would be beneficial.

The separation of academies of science and universities is a particularly critical problem in the region, as it creates a chasm between research and teaching. In Ukraine, both universities and academies can confer Ph.D. diplomas, but the academies are better equipped and better financed. Furthermore, academic councils for Ph.D. defenses exist at academies, but not necessarily at universities; educational institutions in Kyiv have such evaluative bodies, but those in the periphery do not.

In Romania, Ph.D.s previously were granted by both universities and academies of science. Now only universities have the right to award doctorates, and a system evolved that encourages links between academies and universities. Employees of academies are appointed as lecturers at universities, and students who are enrolled in universities can pursue research at academies. Teams of university and academy scholars teach joint courses. Academic standards have been unified, and an academic council comprised of members of both universities and academies was created.

Another recommendation for overcoming the division between research and teaching is the provision of special grants for university-sponsored research projects. Furthermore, institutionally earmarked resources for young scholars would address this problem; at Charles University, two percent of the university budget is reserved specifically for research by young scholars.

Each university should increase knowledge of external funding opportunities for individual research projects to promote individual professional development. Taking this recommendation a step further, the establishment of regional teaching/research resource centers can provide such assistance to young faculty members in order to counteract the division between institutions of higher education and academies. The isolation of universities from other institutions, organizations, companies and government organs was identified as a particular point that needs attention. 

As systems of education are reformed in the region to comply with internationally accepted standards, the method of education delivery is also undergoing change. The transition from information transfer to interactive and critical discourse in the classroom demands retraining. Often, human resources necessary to perform such retraining do not exist in these countries. Teaching methodology was identified as an area of great potential for cooperation and exchange of experience. Mari State University’s law faculty introduced such a program and circulates its materials on the organization of effective learning-based academic processes to other institutions initiating teacher training.

Due to the rigidity of institutions of higher education, the most important problems affecting young scholars are overcentralized structures of the institutions of higher education, discouragement of competition, serious inequalities (gender, geographical distribution, etc.) prevalent in the functioning of these institutions and pervasive corruption. 

Encouraging competition at the individual, departmental and institutional levels was proposed as a way to address the rigidity of universities, which is manifested in the attitude of other faculty members towards young academics who have studied abroad, in the centralized structure of institutions, in secretive and noncooperative decision-making procedures and in the lack of interest in change and innovation.

To increase competition—and thus the quality of performance—on the individual level, institutions should be encouraged to match funds raised by scholars from external sources. Recognition from institutions external to the departments of young scholars, such as prizes for excellence and awards for syllabi and publications, can give them more prestige within the university, possibly increasing their influence for change. Current initiatives that assist this goal include programs offered by IREX and ACCELS that provide small stipends or grants for scholars who study in the United States and return to their home countries.

Additionally, a system of performance evaluation based on international standards not only encourages achievement, but also increases awareness of quality assurance. In some countries, the number of publications produced by a scholar is more important than their quality; thus, colleagues in one department publish extensively together through university "sborniki" that are politically biased. Utilizing external evaluation committees can begin to counter these practices. Publications in inde-pendently refereed journals and citations in other research might be added to lists of criteria for evaluation. New methods of assessment are also necessary—student evaluations are still rare in the region, but internationally have proven to be an effective tool to appraise the quality of teaching.

Transparency in hiring procedures is necessary, and strategies to reintegrate young scholars into their home universities after study abroad must be introduced. In their absence universities hire other lecturers who are not necessarily as well trained; thus, the dilemma is two-fold: how to support returnees and what to do with lecturers who teach in their absence.

Young scholars can profit from relaxing centralized control in higher education (concerning degree conferral, courses required for a certain degree, dissertation committees, etc.). Jealousy and fear of competition often lead to monopolization and corruption.

One method to increase competition on the institutional level is to provide support for institutions or departments that are identified as making progress in introducing innovation and therefore are susceptible to financial constraints. Another solution is to introduce external (nonnational) evaluation of internal structures for accreditation, new curricula and courses, etc. 

3. Status of the Profession: Academic Values and Quality Control

Among the most difficult problems faced by young social scientists in the former communist countries are those originating from the particular set of attitudes prevalent in the institutional environment in which they work. Therefore, even though the lack of adequate resources is the main source of frustration confronting higher education, the very low level of commitment to basic values of scholarship can lead to mismanagement of the currently scarce resources upon which these institutions rely. This propagates a lack of professional values in the academic community, of innovative teaching, of student-oriented education and of quality control and evaluation in institutions of higher education.

Raising prestige for the academic sphere is an important task related to this issue. The development of new values for academic communities in post-communist countries can be encouraged in several ways. It was proposed that support for institutions that promote norms of academic excellence would assist this goal. Independent, professional, refereed academic and civic journals were identified as means by which the values of the academic community and specific disciplines can be promoted.

The protection of academic values is an important issue on various levels; in the classroom, for instance, there is a deep-rooted and accepted culture of cheating in these countries. It is a challenge for the integrity of teachers to change such fixed patterns in the academic environment. This positive role has been overlooked especially in the region of the former Soviet Union. These issues—as well as the more poignant lack of professional ethics and norms that leads to nepotism, protectionism and corruption—can be alleviated by introducing external control. One solution is to invite external assessment of student work by other departments or other universities, for example. Double marking systems for exams and the introduction of credit systems also are recommended.

The attempt to raise academic norms to meet international standards can be achieved through involvement of outside observers in the process of quality control and evaluation of post-communist institutions of higher education—for example, through international accreditation committees. By introducing such norms one can expect that these institutions gradually will accept a different value system and will become more open to innovative thinking and student-oriented education. Since the adoption of these values is more a matter of attitude than of (scarce) resources, it is important to try to institutionalize them by formally establishing new or reformed institutions of higher education upon these values. Additionally, individual university teachers must be encouraged to embrace new methods and values in the educational process, for example, by means of workshops or training sessions on quality control procedures and indicators.

The two approaches of state-centered and institutional responsibility for evaluation need to be supplemented by a third, in which other groups can affect standards of quality. This structural "triangle" of assessment needs to be institutionalized to a certain extent, but it is important that there is also informal cooperation among scholars. Most leading universities in the world do not depend on accreditation; they ensure their own quality and reputation. But for universities trying to gain international recognition, it is important that independent foreign scholars have an advisory role. Degree programs should have external advisory committees and examiners. Transparency in and clear criteria for the evaluation process must be assured.

Voluntary regional evaluation associations are useful for establishing common standards for accreditation as well as for other issues that are applicable not only to state but also to private institutions. In many CEE and NIS countries there has been a proliferation of private universities, but most are not accredited. For example, sixty-seven of the seventy-three universities established in Armenia are private, but none have accreditation. The nine state universities support state accreditation; the private institutions promote institution-based accreditation.
Clearly it is advisable that common standards for evaluation be created with emphasis on outside observers and advisors. In Russia the process of accreditation independently initiated at Mari State University included the involvement of faculty members, administrators and students. Recommendations were prepared regarding thirty areas of the academic process, a strategy was drafted to address them, and an education ministry commission reviewed the results to determine if the requirements for accreditation had been fulfilled.

By promoting academic values and quality assurance in education, the discouragement of innovative teaching can be assuaged and nepotism controlled. Changes in these areas will greatly increase the possibilities for and encouragement of professional development and advancement of young scholars as well as raise the status of the profession as a whole. 

Chair: Marjorie Peace Lenn, Executive Director
Global Alliance for Transnational Education, U.S.
Rapporteur: Keti Vashakidze, Civic Education Project Eastern Scholar
Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Georgia 

The network of universities and scholars in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and the Newly Independent States (NIS) has diminished since the fall of communism. While the new openness has increased the possibility for such interaction, the opportunities for international cooperation often are limited to a few universities and individuals. Many of the natural linkages among academics in the CEE and the NIS were severed in the aftermath of the fall of communism. While young scholars from the region share many interests as their societies undergo similar transitions, they have little opportunity to meet their colleagues in neighboring states. Often they are not aware of other work being done in their discipline in the region. The university systems no longer have the resources or the institutional infrastructure to foster networks of scholars as they once did.

Even among institutions in the same country, academic linkages are often lacking and structures for sharing information and scholarship are inadequate. Various sections of the academic community frequently are segregated from one another. Universities often are subordinated to ministries of education, while research institutes and academies of science fall under other government offices. These arrangements limit cooperation and frustrate attempts to integrate teaching and research.

In addition to rebuilding local networks, increased communication and information exchange with western countries is viewed as critical for higher education reform and development. Exchanges of scholars and collaborative projects can help fill the void created by years of division during the communist period. These linkages also can help compensate for current deficiencies in resources available for higher education in the region. In addition, work being pursued by excellent scholars in the East has not come to the attention of western academics. Similarly, university degrees from CEE and the NIS are not well understood or accepted in the West, and vice versa.

Reform in higher education in CEE and the NIS is a long-term process, and efforts to rebuild the networks that sustain and disseminate academic work are an important part of that process. A number of partnerships and collaborative projects have been established between universities in the West and selected institutions, usually classical universities located in capitals or large urban centers in the region. Less attention has been paid to rebuilding local networks and to sustaining the intellectual community. Provincial universities and polytechnical and pedagogical institutes also need these connections, both locally and internationally. 

1. Types of Linkages

Ways in which young academics can assist one another in bringing about these linkages were mentioned. With additional funding, young scholars can organize national and regional academic events and programs, such as conferences, guest lectures, exchange programs for scholars and students, summer schools, joint research projects and professional associations. Connections are needed among local universities, among public and private institutions, among universities in the center and the periphery of each country and among regional universities.

When considering linkages between the West and the East, participants stressed that it is very important not simply to import solutions or receive help from the West, but to collaborate; not just to copy, but to adapt western models to eastern conditions. Cooperation with CEE and NIS universities also can benefit western institutions. Guest lectures by young scholars from CEE and NIS countries can promote study of the region and ensure that the flow of information goes in both directions. One proposal is to establish a network of regional and western universities/departments in which collaboration occurs in a specific subject or field of interest. Joint projects have been initiated, for instance, between a university in Ukraine and the Free University of Berlin. As a result of this cooperative arrangement, a conference in eastern Ukraine on security led to the publication of a new textbook on international relations.

Translations and the distribution of publications and research also would assist the transfer of knowledge between East and West. To this end it is necessary to provide better access to western publishing houses and to establish databases of East European publications to be distributed in the West.

Agreements such as the Treaty of Lisbon provide assessment and recognition of degrees and credits in Western Europe, which facilitates the exchange of students and young scholars among European countries. Such an agreement would have enormous impact in CEE and NIS countries. Teaching positions in the region are limited, and access to them politically biased. Thus, scholars are discouraged from participating in mobility schemes. Movement assists the breakdown of hierarchies and encourages scholarly discourse. An innovative example is a project in which two lecturers from different universities teach the same course. CEP Fellows have organized guest, joint and visiting lectures that allow students to gain different perspectives and consider comparative and critical objectives rather than promoting the idea that any one instructor possesses an absolute point of view.

National and international professional associations can reestablish links with academics in other areas and countries. In Russia, where there is a lingering tradition from the socialist period of centralized associations, such organizations exist for some disciplines. The benefits of professional associations include: personal and professional contacts, exposure to independent research, interdisciplinary exchange through conferences and the Internet and the promotion of common academic values. Some CEP Eastern Scholars have acquired membership in foreign associations, such as the American Political Science Association (APSA). This is very valuable to the professional development of young scholars as it provides them with information about conferences, international publications and opportu-nities for joint research.

Creating alumni associations of western-trained scholars, including alumni in current programs and utilizing them as mentors for younger scholars can increase the impact of linkage programs and maintain previously established links.

2. Establishing Common Standards:
Areas for Cooperation and Development

A network of universities necessarily raises the issue of common standards. Unfami-liarity with various educational systems and incompatible standards of evaluation breed mistrust and misunderstanding. A proposal for a joint project to address this issue includes analyzing and unifying standards and requirements of study programs in each discipline in the CEE and NIS countries and propagating the findings in an online publication. Ideally, the working community of specialists should define discipline standards, not hierarchies. This is a problem in some NIS countries that lack a critical mass of scholars working in certain disciplines, particularly in those that were not taught during the communist era. Sociologists in the region developed a curriculum basis that can be used for any discipline. Scholars from different universities identified necessary core courses (up to three) for degree programs and drafted prototype syllabi. Joint projects like this one can be initiated in all disciplines in the region.

Common standards applicable to various types of universities are necessary. Currently private universities are disadvantaged, especially concerning state accreditation of their degree programs and funding for research. There are vast differences between large and small institutions and, within these institutions, between departments that have paying students and those that do not. There is also a great difference in standards between universities where research is done and those that only promote teaching. Work is being pursued to establish national academic standards in various countries. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) initiated a pilot project in Russia to introduce college entrance exams, specifically in economics, which can be used as an example to those making efforts in this area.

The unification of standards between academies and universities is another area of discrepancy. Traditionally, academies of science throughout the region had the right to confer higher degrees according to standards different from those of universities. Furthermore, research funding and access to publishing opportunities are unbalanced in favor of academies. In some countries, progress has been made in this area, but further standardization is necessary.

The proliferation of international standards is important (1) to promote international recognition of a university’s programs and thus encourage mobility and (2) to attract outside funding. Local degrees are absolutely essential in most countries; those earned abroad often are not recognized. This problem is also prevalent in western recognition of degrees from the region. Official accreditation by inter-national organizations of CEE and NIS degrees is one step towards this goal. The advice and assistance of western accrediting organizations would be invaluable; umbrella organizations such as the Global Alliance for Transnational Education (GATE) or NAFSA were identified as potential partners. A regional publication on educational norms, similar to the Chronicle of Higher Education, that is accessible to all stakeholders in the university community also would assist this goal. 

American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies (AAASS)

Address: 8 Story Street
Cambridge, MA 02138, U.S.
Tel.: (1-617) 495-0677
Fax: (1-617) 495-0680
E-mail: aaass@hcs.harvard.edu
Web: www.fas.harvard.edu/~aaass

American Councils for International Education: ACTR/ACCELS

Address: 1776 Massachusetts Ave.,
N.W., Suite 700
Washington, D.C. 20036, U.S.
Tel.: (1-202) 833-7522
Fax: (1-202) 833-7523
E-mail: general@actr.org
Web: www.actr.org

American Political Science Association (APSA)

Address: 1527 New Hampshire Ave, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036-1206,
U.S.
Tel.: (1-202) 483-2512
Fax: (1-202) 483-2657
E-mail: apsa@apsanet.org
Web: www.apsanet.org

British Council

Address: 10 Spring Gardens
London SW1A 2BN, U.K.
Tel.: (44-161) 957-7755
Fax: (44-161) 957-7762
E-mail: general.enquiries@britcoun.org
Web: www.britcoun.org

The Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching

Address: 555 Middlefield Road
Menlo Park, CA 94025, U.S.
Tel.: (1-650) 566-5100
Fax: (1-650) 326-0278
E-mail: clyburn@carnegiefoundation.org
Web: www.carnegiefoundation.org

Central European University (CEU)

Address: Nador u. 9
1051 Budapest, Hungary
Tel.: (36-1) 327-3000
Fax: (36-1) 327-3001
E-mail: main@ceu.hu
Web: www.ceu.hu

Special and Extension Programs (SEP)

Tel.: (36-1) 327-3271
Fax: (36-1) 327-3124
E-mail: sep@ceu.hu 

Curriculum Resource Center (CRC)

Tel.: (36-1) 327-3189
Fax: (36-1) 327-3190
E-mail: crc@ceu.hu 

Summer University (SUN)

Tel.: (36-1) 327-8811
Fax: (36-1) 327-3124
E-mail: summeru@ceu.hu

Tel.: (36-1) 235-6132
Fax: (36-1) 327-3211
E-mail: alumni@ceu.hu

Chronicle of Higher Education

Address: 1255 Twenty-third Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20037, U.S.
Tel.: (1-740) 382-3322
Fax: (1-202) 223-6292
E-mail: editor@chronicle.com
Web: www.chronicle.com 

Address: Nádor u. 9
1051 Budapest, Hungary
Tel.: (36-1) 327-3219
Fax: (36-1) 327-3221
E-mail: cep@cepnet.hu
Web: www.cep.org.hu 

Address: 1140 Chapel Street, Suite 401
New Haven, CT 06511, U.S.
Tel.: 1-203-781-0274
Fax: 1-203-781-0276
E-mail: cep@cep.yale.edu
Web: www.cep.org.hu 

Conference of European Rectors (CRE)

Address: 10, Conseil-General
CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
Tel.: (41-22) 329-2644, 329-2251
Fax: (41-22) 329-2821
E-mail: secr@uni2a.unige.ch
Web: www.unige.ch/cre 

Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst

(DAAD, German Academic Exchange Service)

EBSCO Publishing

Address: 10 Estes Street, P.O. Box 602
Ipswich, MA 01938, U.S.
Tel.: (1-978) 356-6500
(1-800) 653-2726
Fax: (1-978) 356-6565
E-mail: ep@epnet.com
Web: www.ebsco.com 

Educational Testing Service (ETS)

Eurasia Foundation

Address: 1350 Connecticut Ave. N.W.,
Suite 1000
Washington, D.C. 20036, U.S.
Tel.: (1-202) 234-7370
Fax: (1-202) 234-7377
E-mail: eurasia@eurasia.org 
Web: www.eurasia.org 

European Cultural Foundation (ECF)

Secretary General: Mr. Rudiger Stephan
Address: Jan van Goyenkade 5
1075 HN Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Tel.: (31-0) 20-676-0222
Fax: (31-0) 20-675-2231
Web: www.eurocult.org 

European Foundation Center

Address: Rue de la Loi 2000
B-1049 Bruxelles, Belgium
Tel.: (32-2) 295-1100
Fax: (32-2) 299-4158
E-mail: yfe@dg22.cec.be
Web: www.europa.eu.int 

Ford Foundation Moscow

Address: Tverskaya ulitsa 16/2 5th fl.
103009 Moscow, Russia
Tel.: (7-095) 935-7051
Fax: (7-095) 935-7052
E-mail: ford-moscow@fordfound.org
Web: www.fordfound.org  

Global Alliance for Transnational Education (GATE)

Address: One Dupont Circle, N.W.,
Suite 515
Washington, D.C. 20036, U.S.
Tel.: (1-800) 496-2981
(1-202) 293-9177
Fax: (1-202) 293-6104
E-mail: gate@aacrao.nche.edu
Web: www.edugate.org 

Goethe Institut

Address: Helene-Weber-Allee 1
80637 München, Germany
Tel.: (49-89) 159-210
Fax: (49-89) 159-21450
E-mail: zv@goethe.de
Web: www.goethe.de 

Address: Ahrstrasse 39
53175 Bonn, Germany
Tel.: (49-228) 8870
Fax: (49-228) 887-110
E-mail: sekr@hrk.de
Web: www.hrk.de 

International Higher Education Support Program (HESP)

Address: Open Society Institute–Budapest
Nádor u. 11
1051 Budapest, Hungary
Tel.: (36-1) 327-3850, 327-3862
Fax: (36-1) 327-3864
E-mail: hesp@cepnet.hu
Web: www.osi.hu/hesp/index.html 

International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX)

Address: 1616 H Street, N.W., 6th Floor
Washington, D.C. 20006, U.S.
Tel.: (1-202) 628-8188
Fax: (1-202) 628-8189
E-mail: irex@irex.org
Web: info.irex.org

MacArthur Foundation

Address: 140 S. Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60603, U.S.
Tel.: (1-312) 726-8000
Fax: (1-312) 920-6258
E-mail: 4answers@macfound.org
Web: www.macfdn.org 

Moscow Public Science Foundation

Address: Prospekt Mira 36 (2nd floor)
129010 Moscow, Russia
Tel.: (7-095) 280-3526
Fax: (7-095) 280-7016
Web: www.mpsf.org  

Address: 1307 New York Avenue,
N.W., 8th Floor
Washington, D.C. 20005-4701,
U.S.
Tel.: (1-202) 737-3699
Fax: (1-202) 737-3657
E-mail: inbox@nafsa.org
Web: www.nafsa.org

Russian and Eurasian Awards Program
(REAP)

Tel.: (1-202) 737-3699
Fax: (1-202) 737-3657
E-mail: REAP@nafsa.org
Web: www.nafsa.org/reap/ 

Address: Október 6. u. 12
1051 Budapest, Hungary
Tel.: (36-1) 327-3100
Fax: (36-1) 327-3101
E-mail: info@cepnet.hu
Web: www.osi.hu 

Address: 400 West 59th Street
New York, NY 10019, U.S.
Tel.: (1-212) 548-0600
Fax: (1-212) 548-4679
E-mail: osnews@sorosny.org 
Web: www.soros.org 

Robert Bosch Foundation

Address: Heidehofstr. 31
70184 Stuttgart, Germany
Tel.: (49-711) 460-840
Fax: (49-711) 460-841-094
E-mail: rbsg@bosch-stiftung.de
Web: www.bosch-stiftung.de

The World Bank

Address: 1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20433, U.S.
Tel.: (1-202) 477-1234
Fax: (1-202) 522-3233
E-mail: info@worldbank.org
Web: www.worldbank.org 

Corneliu Berari CEP Local Faculty Fellow
University of the West, Timisoara, Romania

Galina Bitukova CEP Local Faculty Fellow
American University of Kyrgyzstan
Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

Petr Cepek Vice-Rector
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Vadym Cherkasenko JFDP Alumnus
Kyiv Mohyla Academy, Mykolaiv Branch, Ukraine

Ivan Chorvat CEP Local Faculty Fellow
University of Matej Mel, Banska Bystrica, Slovakia

Donna Culpepper President
Civic Education Project

Larisa Deriglazova Deputy Country Director, Siberia & Far East
Civic Education Project

Sergei Dobrinin CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Buryat State University, Ulan-Ude, Russia

Gerhard Duda German Rectors Conference

Zorana Gajic Senior Program Manager

Higher Education Support Program, Hungary

Rita Galambos Country Director, Hungary
Civic Education Project

Liana Ghent Regional Director of Central & East European
Programs
Civic Education Project

Egon Hemlin In Service Training Department
Uppsala University, Sweden

Alexandra Horobet CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

Lusine Hovhannisian CEP Local Faculty Fellow
American Open University, Yerevan, Armenia

Sophia Howlett Dean of Special and Extension Programs
Central European University, Hungary

Eva Hyskaj CEP Local Faculty Fellow
University of Tirana, Albania

Eckhard Jaedtke Counsellor
Delegation of the European Commission to Hungary

Petr Jehlicka CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Robert M. Jenkins Administrative Director
Center for Slavic, Eurasian and East European
Studies, University of North Carolina, U.S.

Andrea Kalan Program Administrator

Economics Education and Research Consortium (EERC),
Ukraine

Alla Kassianova CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Tomsk State University, Russia

Nazokat Kasymova CEP Local Faculty Fellow
University of World Economy & Diplomacy,
Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Elena Kovaleva CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Donetsk State Technical University, Ukraine

Annette Laborey Executive Director
Open Society Institute, France

Adam Lazowsky CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Warsaw University, Poland

Emily Lehrman External Relations Officer
Civic Education Project

Sergei Makarevich CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Belarusian State University, Minsk, Belarus

Jeffrey Meyers Regional Director of Eurasian Programs
Civic Education Project

Anatoliy Mikhailov Rector
European Humanities University, Minsk, Belarus

Katalin Miklos Program Officer
Civic Education Project

Ammar Mirascija Higher Education Programs and Scholarships Coordinator

Open Society Fund, Bosnia Herzegovina

Adrian Miroiu State Secretary
Ministry of National Education, Romania

Dusan Mlynarcik Vice-Rector
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia

Tetiana Momot CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Kharkiv Academy of Municipal Economy, Ukraine

Ekaterina Novikova Executive Director
Moscow Public Science Foundation, Russia

Victoria Novikova CEP Local Faculty Fellow
Far East State University, Vladivostok, Russia

Lucia Padure CEP Local Faculty Fellow
International Institute of Management,

Chisinau, Moldova

Gyorgy Pasztor Training Manager
Citibank, Hungary

Marjorie Peace Lenn Executive Director

Global Alliance for Transnational Educa